SanghaIn general, the term "sangha" refers to a community of bhikkhu (Buddhist monks) or bhikkhuni (Buddhist nuns) while savaka refers to a community of hearers/disciples but never Arahant. The term is the same in Pali or Sanskrit. In much stricter sence, the sangha refer to Aryan, or Noble, Sangha - the community of Arahant. It is to this Aryan Sangha that one goes for refuge to in the traditional Buddhist ceremony of Going for Refuge to the Three_Jewels. The Sangha is traditionally considered to provide an environment most conducive to advancing toward Enlightenment, and is responsible for maintaining, translating, advancing, and teaching the Buddhadharma (teachings of Buddhism). More recently Reginald Ray has pointed out in his book Buddhist Saints in India, that earlier Buddhist traditions maintained a three tier social structure of Forest Renunciants, Settled Monastics, and lay supporters. As the Buddha repeated says in the scriptures the most conducive environment for meditation, and progress on the spiritual path is solitude. The forest renunciant was dedicated to practice in this solitary manner - they provided the spiritual cutting for the Buddhist society. Settled monastics emerged only well after the death of the Buddha, and played a different role. Settles monastics were the keepers of tradition, initially orally, but later in writing. They were committed to preserving the teachings and providing a orthodox context which the forest renunciants could refer back to. The lay community supported forest renunicants and settled monastics with gifts of food, clothing, and shelter in hope of obtaining karmatic merit. \nMonastic traditionThe key feature of Buddhist monasticism is the adherence to the Vinaya which contains an elaborate set of rules of conduct including complete chastity, only one meal per day. Transgression of rules carries penalties ranging from confession to permanent expulsion from the Sangha. Traditionally Buddhist monastics eschew ordinary clothes and wear robes. Originally the robes were sewn together from rags and stained with earth. The idea that robes were dyed with saffron seems unlikely to be true since it was and still is a very expensive commodity, and monks were poor. The color of modern robes varies from community to community (orange is characteristic of southeast Asian Theravada groups, maroon of Tibet, gray of Korea, etc.) The word which is usually translated as monk is bhikkhu in Pali or bhikshu in Sanskrit. The feminine is bhikkhuni/bhikshuni. It literally means beggar, and it is traditional for bhikkhu to beg their food. In most places this has become an elaborate ritual, where lay people feed monastics in order to obtain merit which will ensure them a fortunate rebirth. Although monastics traditionally did not work this changed when Buddhism moved to the far east, so that it is now expected for Zen monks to work for part of their day. Monks and nuns may own only the barest minimum of possessions (ideally, three robes, a begging [alms] bowl, cloth belt, needle and thread, razor [for shaving the head], and water filter [for drinking water]). In practice they often have a few personal possessions. Idea that all Buddhism especially monks and nuns practice vegetarianism is a Western misperception. In some sanskrit sutras meat eating is strongly discouraged while in much older Pali Sutras Buddah specifically reject suggestion by a senior monk to impose vegetarianism to Sangha. Buddah himself is recorded to consume meat. Buddah allowed Sangha members to eat whatever food is donated to them by laypeople, except that they may not eat meat if they know or suspect the animal was killed expressly to feed them. Consequently, Theravadan tradition (Sri Lanka, Thanland and Burma) which follow Pali scriptures do not practice vegetarianism though individual may do so as his or her personal choise. On the other hand, in Mahayanan and Vajrayana traditionwhich accept both Theravadan and Mahayanan scriptures and consequently the practice will vary depending on their interpretation of sutras. Some area such as China and Vietnam expect the Sangha to strictly practice vegetarianism while other areas such as Japan, Korea or Tibet do not. Within Chinese society for instance, members of the Sangha were expected to renounce familial connections and become a member of the family of the Sangha. The Chinese term for becoming a monk or nun is to "exit the house" and the Chinese term for renouncing ones membership in the Sangha is to "return the books." The lay community is responsible for the production of societal goods and services, and for the production and raising of children. According to Mahayanan sutras, the Buddha always maintained that lay persons were capable of great wisdom in the Buddhadharma and of reaching Enlightenment. In Theravadan sutras, reaching of Enlightenment is limited to those who become part of Sangha.Women's role in the SanghaAlthough always maintaining that women were fully as capable of attaining Enlightenment as men, Buddha originally neither permitted women to join the sangha of monks nor to form an independent sangha of nuns. After considerable entreaty from his aunt and foster-mother Mahapajapati Gotami, who wished to ordain, and from his cousin and aide Ananada, who supported her cause, the Buddha relented and permitted the formation of a female Sangha on condition that each ordination is sanctioned by at least 5 bhikkhunis. (Some have speculated that Buddha's reluctance to permit their ordination was due to fears that a community of women might not be safe in his contemporary society.) The Bhikkhuni Sangha spread to all buddhist countries. But in Sri Lanka, it died out in 11th century due to civil turmoil. Afterward no attempt was made to revive Bhikkhuni Sanga in Theravadan tradition. Even after Theravadan Buddhism has spread to Thailand and Burma this situation has continued. In recent decades, some serious attempt has been made to revive Bhikkhuni Sangha in Theravadan tradition by inviting Bhikkhuni from Mahayanan tradition. Tha validity of this ordination is disputed by conservative monastic sangha. In the west, where feminism has been a strong influence. there have been many remarkable Buddhist nuns: two Western nuns of note are Pema Chodron, and Ayya Khema.External linksFrom Access to Insight:
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