Yuan Dynasty

The Yuan Dynasty (Mongolian: Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus; Chinese: 元朝) (1271-1368), also called the Mongol Dynasty, was part of the Mongol Empire. In Chinese historiography, it followed the Song Dynasty and preceded the Ming Dynasty in China. In 1231, Korea fell into Mongol hands, which later used as a base for invading Japan. By the mid-13th century, the Mongols had subjugated north China and the Muslim kingdoms of Central Asia and had twice penetrated Europe. With the resources of his vast empire, Kublai Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan and the supreme leader of all Mongol tribes, began his drive against the Southern Song. Even before the extinction of the Song dynasty, Kublai Khan had established the first alien dynasty to rule all China--the Yuan. In 1279, Guangzhou fell into Mongol hands, which marks the end of the Southern Song and the onset of China under the Mongols. Although the Mongols sought to govern China through traditional institutions, using Han Chinese bureaucrats, they were not up to the task. The Han were discriminated against socially and politically. All important central and regional posts were monopolized by Mongols, who also preferred employing non-Chinese from other parts of the Mongol domain--Central Asia, the Middle East, and even Europe--in those positions for which no Mongol could be found. Chinese were more often employed in non-Chinese regions of the empire. As in other periods of alien dynastic rule of China, a rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of drama and the novel and the increased use of the written vernacular. Given the unified rule of central Asia, trades between East and West flourished. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich the Chinese performing arts. From this period dates the conversion to Islam, by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest. Nestorianism and Roman Catholicism also enjoyed a period of toleration. Lamaism (Tibetan Buddhism) flourished, although native Taoism endured Mongol persecutions. Confucian governmental practices and examinations based on the Classics, which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Mongols in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature, cartography, and geography, and scientific education. Certain key Chinese innovations, such as printing techniques, porcelain production, playing cards, and medical literature, were introduced in Europe, while the production of thin glass and cloisonne became popular in China. The first records of travel by Westerners date from this time. The most famous traveler of the period was the Venetian Marco Polo, whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the Great Khan's capital (now Beijing), and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels, Il milione (or, The Million, known in English as the Travels of Marco Polo), appeared about the year 1299. The works of John of Plano Carpini and William of Rubruck also provided early descriptions of the Mongols to the West. The Mongols undertook extensive public works. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, granaries were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During the Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of the Grand Canal, which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland as well as maritime commerce throughout Asia and facilitated the first direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese and Mongol travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering, while bringing back to the Middle Kingdom new scientific discoveries and architectural innovations. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of a major new food crop--sorghum--along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation. In time, Khubilai's successors became sinicized, and they then lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and were marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both their Mongolian army and their Chinese subjects. China was torn by dissension and unrest; bandits ranged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies. The last of the nine successors of Khubilai was expelled from Dadu in 1368 by Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), and died in Karakorum in 1370. Although Zhu, who adopted Mongol military methods, drove the Mongols out of China, he did not destroy their power. The Yuan Dynasty, remained in Mongolia, and is called the Northern Yuan by modern historians. Accoording to Chinese political orthodoxy, there could be only one legitimate empire, and so both dynasties denied the legitimacy of the other, although modern Chinese historians tend to regard the Ming dynasty as more legitimate. Chinese called the Mongols "Tatar" (韃靼 dá dá) instead of "Mongol" (蒙古 meng2 gu3) even though they called themselves "Mongghul". A Chinese army invaded Mongolia in 1380. In 1388 a decisive victory was won; about 70,000 Mongols were taken prisoner, and Karakorum was annihilated. In 1388 the throne was taken over by Yesüder, a descendant of Arigh Bugha. Getting through the turbulent period, descendants of Khubilai were restored to the throne. When Lingdan Khan, the last grand-Khan of the Mongols, died on his way to Tibet in 1634, his son Ejei surrendered to the Manchu and gave the great seal of the Yuan Emperor to Hong Taiji. As a result, Hong Taiji established the new dynasty of Qing as the successor of the Yuan Dynasty in 1636.

Rulers of Yuan Dynasty

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Temple names	Posthumous names	Khan Names	Given names	Period of Reigns	Era names and their according range of years
Convention: use first name (e.g. Temujin) or Khan names for khans before Kublai Khan. Use "Yuan" + temple name or posthumous name after. A mix of the three for Kublai Khan.
Note: 1) all first names of the sovereigns were those more familiar to western readers. 2) Timur or Temür means the same Mongolian words but Temür will be used for avoiding confusion with the Timur (Timurlane or Tamerlane) who attempted to retore the Mongolian Empire in Central Asia.
Taizu (太祖 Tàizǔ)	too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign	Genghis Khan	Borjigin Temujin (孛兒只斤鐵木真 Bèiérzhījīn Tiěmùzhēn)	1206-1227	did not exist
Ruizong (睿宗 Ruìzōng)	too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign	?	Borjigin Tolui (孛兒只斤拖雷 BèiérzhījīnTuōléi)	1228	did not exist
Taizong (太宗 Tàizōng)	too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign	Ögedei Khan	Borjigin Ögedei (孛兒只斤窩闊台 Bèiérzhījīn Wōkuòtái)	1229-1241	did not exist
did not exist	did not exist		Töregene Khâtûn (乃馬真 Nǎimǎzhēn)	regent 1241-1246	did not exist
Dingzong (定宗 Dìngzōng)	too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign	Güyük Khan	Borjigin Güyük (孛兒只斤貴由 Bèiérzhījīn Guìyuó)	1246-1248	did not exist
did not exist	did not exist	?	Oghul Ghaymish (海米失 Hǎimǐshī)	regent 1248-1251	did not exist
Xianzong (憲宗 Xiànzōng)	too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign	Möngke Khan	Borjigin Möngke (孛兒只斤蒙哥 Bèiérzhījīn Ménggē)	1251-1259	did not exist
Shizu (世祖 Shìzǔ)	too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign	Kublai Khan	Borjigin Kublai (孛兒只斤忽必烈 Bèiérzhījīn Hūbìliè)	1260-1294	Zhongtong (中統 Zhōngtǒng) 1260-1264 \n Zhiyuan (至元 Zhìyuán) 1264-1294 \n
Chengzong (成宗 Chéngzōng)	too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign	Temür Öljeytü Khân	Borjigin Temür (孛兒只斤鐵木耳 Bèiérzhījīn Tiěmùér)	1295-1307	Yuanzhen (元貞 Yuánzhēn) 1295-1297 \n Dade (大德 Dádè) 1297-1307 \n
Wuzong (武宗 Wǔzōng)	too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign	Qayshan Gülük	Borjigin Qayshan (孛兒只斤海山 Bèiérzhījīn Hǎishān)	1308-1311	Zhida (至大 Zhìdà) 1308-1311 \n
Renzong (仁宗 Rènzōng)	too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign	Ayurparibhadra	Borjigin Ayurparibhadra 孛兒只斤愛育黎拔力八達 Bèiérzhījīn Àiyùlíbálìbādá)	1312-1320	Huangqing (皇慶 Huángqìng) 1312-1313 \n Yanyou (延祐 Yányòu) 1314-1320 \n
Yingzong (英宗 Yīngzōng)	too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign	Suddhipala Gege'en	Borjigin Suddhipala (孛兒只斤碩德八剌 Bèiérzhījīn Shuòdébālá)	1321-1323	Zhizhi (至治 Zhìzhì) 1321-1323 \n
Convention: 'for the following sovereign only, use "yuan" + posthumous name, i.e. 元泰定帝 Yuán Tài Dìng Dì.
Jinzong (晉宗 Jìnzōng)	Taiding Di (泰定帝 Tàidìng Dì)	Yesün-Temür	Borjigin Yesün-Temür 孛兒只斤也孫鐵木兒 Bèiérzhījīn Yěsǔn-Tiěmùér)	1321-1328	Taiding (泰定 Tàidìng) 1321-1328 \n Zhihe (致和 Zhìhé) 1328
did not exist	Tianshun Di (天順帝 Tiānshùn Dì)	Arigaba	Borjigin Arigaba (孛兒只斤阿速吉八 Bèiérzhījīn Āsùjíbā)	1328	Tianshun (天順 Tiānshùn) 1328
Wenzong (文宗 Wénzōng)	too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign	Jijaghatu Toq-Temür	Borjigin Toq-Temür (孛兒只斤圖鐵木兒 Bèiérzhījīn Tú-Tiěmùér)	1328-1329 and 1329-1332	Tianli (天曆 Tiānlì) 1328-1330 \n Zhishun (至順 Zhìshùn) 1330-1332
Mingzong (明宗 Míngzōng)	too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign	Qoshila Qutuqtu	Borjigin Qoshila (孛兒只斤和世剌 Bèiérzhījīn Héshìlà)	1329	did not exist
Ningzong (寧宗 Níngzōng)	too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign	Irinchibal	Borjigin Irinchibal (孛兒只斤懿璘質班 Bèiérzhījīn Yìlínzhíbān)	1332	Zhishun (至順 Zhìshùn) 1332
Convention: 'for the following sovereign only, use "yuan" + posthumous name.
Hui Zong (惠宗 Huì Zōng)	Shundi (順帝 Shùndì)	Toghan-Temür	Borjigin Toghan-Temür 孛兒只斤妥懽鐵木兒 Bèiérzhījīn Tuǒhuān Tiěmùér)	1333-1370	Zhishun (至順 Zhìshùn) 1333 \n Yuantong (元統 Yuántǒng) 1333-1335 \n Zhiyuan (至元 Zhìyuán) 1335-1340 \n Zhizheng (至正 Zhìzhèng) 1341-1368 \n Zhiyuan (至元 Zhìyuán) 1368-1370 \n

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Yuan Dynasty (after expelled from China by Ming in 1368) 1368 - mid 14th century

Temple Names (Miao Hao 廟號 Miào Hào)	Posthumous Names (Shi Hao 諡號)	Khan Names	Born Names	Period of Reigns	Era Names (Nian Hao 年號) and their according range of years
Convention: use khan names or born names.
Note: 1) all first names of the sovereigns were those more familiar to western readers. 2) Timur or Temür means the same Mongolian words but Temür will be used for avoiding confusion with the Timur (Timurlane or Tamerlane) who attempted to restore the Mongolian Empire in Central Asia.
Convention: 'for the following sovereign only, use "yuan" + posthumous name.
Hui Zong (惠宗 Huì Zōng) (same person as the last Yuan emperor in China)	Shundi (順帝 Shùndì)	Toghan-Temür	Borjigin Toghan-Temür 孛兒只斤妥懽鐵木兒 Bèiérzhījīn Tuǒhuān Tiěmùér)	1333-1370	Zhishun (至順 Zhìshùn) 1333 \n Yuantong (元統 Yuántǒng) 1333-1335 \n Zhiyuan (至元 Zhìyuán) 1335-1340 \n Zhizheng (至正 Zhìzhèng) 1341-1368 \n Zhiyuan (至元 Zhìyuán) 1368-1370 \n
Zhaozong (昭宗 Zhāozōng)	did not exist	Biliketu Khan?	Borjigin Ayushilidrala ? (孛兒只斤愛育識里達臘 Bèiérzhījīn Àiyùshìlǐdálà)	1370-1378	Xuanguang (宣光 Xuānguāng) 1371-1378 \n
did not exist	did not exist	Usahar Khan?	Borjigin Togus-Temür 孛兒只斤脫古思鐵木兒 Bèiérzhījīn Tuōgǔsī Tiěmùér)	1378-1387	Tianguang (天光 Tiānguāng) 1378-1387 \n
Note: ....5 more khans before the Bei-Er-Zhi-Jin family stepped down from the khan throne....

The imperial family belongs to the Borjigin clan of the Kiyan superclan. Name transliteration form Mongolian:

• Temür Öljeytü Khân (cheng)\n* Qayshan Gülük Hai-Shan (wu)\n* Ayurparibhadra Ayurbarwada (ren)\n* Suddhipala Gege'en Shidebala (ying)\n* Yesün-Temür (tai ding di)\n* Arigaba Aragibag (tian shun di)\n* Jijaghatu Toq-Temür (wen)\n* Qoshila Qutuqtu (míng)\n* Rinchenpal Irinchibal (níng)\n* Toghan-Temür (shun di)\n* ? (zhao)\n* Togus-Temür (last with era name)

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